Journal of Musculoskeletal Trauma

Review Article

Spine OpenSim models: a narrative review of the literature: Mohammad Taghi Karimi; Received April 13, 2026 Accepted May 4, 2026 Published online July 7, 2026; DOI: https://doi.org/10.12671/jmt.2026.00171 [Epub ahead of print]

Abstract PDF: The human spine is affected by various traumatic and pathological conditions that can impair function during daily activities. Several software programs have been developed to assess the risk of spinal injury, and OpenSim is one platform used for this purpose. Various OpenSim spine models have been developed to analyse parameters such as range of motion, moments applied to the vertebrae, muscle forces, and joint contact forces. This review aimed to compile the available OpenSim models that can be used to study the spine under normal and pathological conditions. Published studies using spine models in Open- Sim were reviewed, and information on model outputs, availability, and validity was extracted. Keywords such as “spine models,” “lumbar models,” “musculoskeletal modelling,” and “trunk models” were used in combination with “OpenSim.” Eighty papers on spine models in OpenSim were identified, of which 23 were selected for final analysis. The available OpenSim models were classified as specific spine models (17 models) or full-body models (six models) that include the spine as a component. The available models can be used to assess injury risk, muscle forces, and joint contact forces in the cervical and lumbar spine. Full-body models allow examination of kinematics and joint contact forces at L5/S1, although only a limited number of muscles are represented in these models. Output validity has been evaluated in only a few models.

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